Nature of Knowledge Management

Understanding the Difference among Knowledge, Data and Information

Data represents raw numbers and assertions. It comprises facts, observations or perceptions. Data is just bits, many zeroes and ones.

Example: Bits representing score on examination including score in test 1 and score in test 2.

Information is data with context and relevance. While data are nothing but useless garbage bits and uninterpretable zeroes and ones, information can be used to obtain a more meaningful indication of trends and patterns.

Example: In a test, the result of the frequency of errors interprets if the item is too difficult or too easy to answer.

Knowledge is information with decision-making and action-directed utility and purpose. Knowledge is the highest level in the hierarchy, with information in them middle, and data ot be at the lowest level. This is the richest, deepest and most valuable of the three.

Example: The information in the frequency error and score of test items shows the validity of each item in the test if there's a need to be retained or to be revised.

Knowledge is the information that helps to produce information from data or produce valuable information from less valuable information.

Types of Knowledge

Epistemology is the branch of philosophy that studies the nature of knowledge, its presuppositions and foundations, and its extent and validity (American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition.

There are many classifications and characterizations of types of knowledge, e.g. individual, social, causal, conditional, relational, pragmatic encoded, encoded and procedural. It is very important to know what knowledge is before we can manage it effectively.

Subjective View of Knowledge

In this kind of view, reality is entirely dependent on human perception and is socially constructed through interaction and individuals.  

·         Knowledge has no existence independently of social practices and human experience

·         Knowledge is not an independent object

·         Knowledge has no single location

·         Knowledge is viewed as an on-going accomplishment

Objective View of Knowledge

In objective view of knowledge, reality is independent of human perceptions and can be structured in terms of priori categories and concepts. 

·         Knowledge can be located

·         Knowledge is something that can be stored, transferred, and manipulated

·         Knowledge enables access and utilization of information

·         Knowledge is a strategic capability that can potentially be applied to seek a competitive
      advantage 

Procedural vs. Declarative Knowledge

Declarative Knowledge focuses on beliefs about relationships among variables.

Example: “All other things being equal, greater price charge for a product would cause some reduction in its number of sales.”

It can be stated in the form of logical propositions, expected correlations, or formulas relating concepts represented as logical symbols and/or mathematical variables. This is often characterized in KM circles as “know-what.”

Procedural Knowledge focuses on beliefs relating procedures or processes: sequences or steps or actions to desired or undesired outcomes.  

Example: The procedure that should be followed in a government organization in deciding on whom to award the contract for a particular area (information system development).

It is often characterized in KM circles as “know-how.”

Tacit vs. Explicit

Tacit Knowledge includes insights, intuitions, and hunches that are not verbalized or documented. This is usually difficult to express and formalized. Therefore, it is difficult to share. It is a phenomenon wherein the employee can’t really tell how to do something.  

Explicit Knowledge refers to knowledge that has been expressed into words or numbers. It can be shared formally and systematically in the form of data, specifications, manuals, drawings, audio or video tapes, computer programs, patents, etc.

Can we convert explicit knowledge to tacit knowledge?

We often convert explicit knowledge to tacit knowledge. It usually happens when an individual reads a book and learns some insights from it, but not by rote memorization.  

Can we convert tacit knowledge to explicit knowledge?

We can sometimes convert tacit knowledge to explicit knowledge. It happens when an individual, who has a lot of tacit knowledge, writes a book formalizing that knowledge. More often, it is like difficult conversion that requires hard efforts.

General vs. Specific Knowledge

General Knowledge is possessed by a large number of individuals and can be transferred easily across individuals.

Example: Headache is one symptom of brain hemorrhage.

Specific Knowledge (idiosyncratic knowledge) is possessed by a very limited number of individuals, and is expensive to transfer.

Example: How to operate on a patient suffering a stroke.

Technically vs. Contextually Specific Knowledge

Technically Specific Knowledge is a deep knowledge about a specific area. It includes tools and techniques for solving problems. It is often acquired through formal training and experience in the field.

Examples:          

• The scientific knowledge of a marine biologist
• The knowledge about computer hardware by an engineer

Contextually Specific Knowledge refers to the knowledge of particular circumstances of time and place in which work is to be performed. It can not be acquired through formal training.

Examples:               

• The detailed knowledge that design engineers possessed about the idiosyncrasies of the particular design group they are working 
• Basketball forward detailed knowledge about the team’s center

Reference:

Becerra-Fernandez, I. and Sabherwal, R. (2010). Knowledge Management: Systems and Processes. New York: ME Sharpe, Inc.